Where Does the -Dndebug Normally Come From

Where does 'Hello world' come from?

Brian Kernighan actually wrote the first "hello, world" program as part of the documentation for the BCPL programming language developed by Martin Richards. BCPL was used while C was being developed at Bell Labs a few years before the publication of Kernighan and Ritchie's C book in 1972.

As part of the research for a book I was writing about the Alice programming environment, I corresponded with both Prof. Kernighan at Princeton and Martin Richards at Cambridge (when I was teaching a seminar there in the 1990’s). They helped me to track the first documented use of code to print the message "Hello, World!” Brian Kernighan remembered writing the code for part of the I/O section of the BCPL manual. Martin Richards -- who seems to have a treasure trove of notes, old documents, etc. -- found the manual and confirmed that this was the original appearance of the program. The code was used for early testing of the C compiler and made its way into Kernighan and Ritchie's book. Later, it was one of the first programs used to test Bjarne Stroustrup's C++ compiler.

It became a standard for new programmers after it appeared in Kernighan and Ritchie, which
is probably the best selling introduction to programming of all time.

Why does CNNs usually have a stem?

As far as I know, this is done in order to quickly downsample an input image with strided convolutions of quite large kernel size (5x5 or 7x7) so that further layers can effectively do their work with much less computational complexity.

What are res and req parameters in Express functions?

req is an object containing information about the HTTP request that raised the event. In response to req, you use res to send back the desired HTTP response.

Those parameters can be named anything. You could change that code to this if it's more clear:

app.get('/user/:id', function(request, response){
  response.send('user ' + request.params.id);
});

Edit:

Say you have this method:

app.get('/people.json', function(request, response) { });

The request will be an object with properties like these (just to name a few):

• request.url, which will be "/people.json" when this particular action is triggered
• request.method, which will be "GET" in this case, hence the app.get() call.
• An array of HTTP headers in request.headers, containing items like request.headers.accept, which you can use to determine what kind of browser made the request, what sort of responses it can handle, whether or not it's able to understand HTTP compression, etc.
• An array of query string parameters if there were any, in request.query (e.g. /people.json?foo=bar would result in request.query.foo containing the string "bar").

To respond to that request, you use the response object to build your response. To expand on the people.json example:

app.get('/people.json', function(request, response) {
  // We want to set the content-type header so that the browser understands
  //  the content of the response.
  response.contentType('application/json');

  // Normally, the data is fetched from a database, but we can cheat:
  var people = [
    { name: 'Dave', location: 'Atlanta' },
    { name: 'Santa Claus', location: 'North Pole' },
    { name: 'Man in the Moon', location: 'The Moon' }
  ];

  // Since the request is for a JSON representation of the people, we
  //  should JSON serialize them. The built-in JSON.stringify() function
  //  does that.
  var peopleJSON = JSON.stringify(people);

  // Now, we can use the response object's send method to push that string
  //  of people JSON back to the browser in response to this request:
  response.send(peopleJSON);
});

When does a process get SIGABRT (signal 6)?

abort() sends the calling process the SIGABRT signal, this is how abort() basically works.

abort() is usually called by library functions which detect an internal error or some seriously broken constraint. For example malloc() will call abort() if its internal structures are damaged by a heap overflow.

Why do variable names often start with the letter 'm'?

It stands for member. I personally find this convention unhelpful, but it's subjective.

What is a segmentation fault?

Segmentation fault is a specific kind of error caused by accessing memory that “does not belong to you.” It’s a helper mechanism that keeps you from corrupting the memory and introducing hard-to-debug memory bugs. Whenever you get a segfault you know you are doing something wrong with memory – accessing a variable that has already been freed, writing to a read-only portion of the memory, etc. Segmentation fault is essentially the same in most languages that let you mess with memory management, there is no principal difference between segfaults in C and C++.

There are many ways to get a segfault, at least in the lower-level languages such as C(++). A common way to get a segfault is to dereference a null pointer:

int *p = NULL;
*p = 1;

Another segfault happens when you try to write to a portion of memory that was marked as read-only:

char *str = "Foo"; // Compiler marks the constant string as read-only
*str = 'b'; // Which means this is illegal and results in a segfault

Dangling pointer points to a thing that does not exist anymore, like here:

char *p = NULL;
{
    char c;
    p = &c;
}
// Now p is dangling

The pointer p dangles because it points to the character variable c that ceased to exist after the block ended. And when you try to dereference dangling pointer (like *p='A'), you would probably get a segfault.

Can I use commas in a URL?

I recall that Url Routing by default first checks to see if the file exists, and commas are not legal in filenames, which is parhaps why you are getting errors. IIS may have legacy code that aborts the request before it can get to asp.net for processing.

Scott Hanselman's blog post talks a bit about this and may be relevant for you.

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As general comment: Url rewriting is typically used to make a url friendly and easy to remember.

~/page.aspx?id=1,2,3,4 is neither worse nor better than ~/page/1-2-3-4.aspx : both are difficult to use so why go through the extra effort? Avoid creating new url forms just because you can. Users, help desk, and other developers will just be confused.

Url rewriting is best utilized to transform

~/products/view.aspx?id=1
~/products/category.aspx?type=beverage

into

~/products/view/1
~/products/category/beverage

How do you define indexes normally in PostgreSQL (coming from MySQL)

For the most part the default index type (btree) will be fine.

The default index name (if you don't specify one in the CREATE INDEX statement) is based on the table and column name, typically something like table_column_idx. IIRC index names must be unique within a schema, so if you name your indexes with the same name as the columns you may run into trouble if the same column name is used in more than one table in the schema.

How does the this keyword work, and when should it be used?

this is a keyword in JavaScript that is a property of an execution context. Its main use is in functions and constructors.
The rules for this are quite simple (if you stick to best practices).

Technical description of this in the specification

The ECMAScript standard defines this via the abstract operation (abbreviated AO) ResolveThisBinding:

The [AO] ResolveThisBinding […] determines the binding of the keyword this using the LexicalEnvironment of the running execution context. [Steps]:

1. Let envRec be GetThisEnvironment().
2. Return ? envRec.GetThisBinding().

Global Environment Records, module Environment Records, and function Environment Records each have their own GetThisBinding method.

The GetThisEnvironment AO finds the current running execution context’s LexicalEnvironment and finds the closest ascendant Environment Record (by iteratively accessing their [[OuterEnv]] properties) which has a this binding (i.e. HasThisBinding returns true). This process ends in one of the three Environment Record types.

The value of this often depends on whether code is in strict mode.

The return value of GetThisBinding reflects the value of this of the current execution context, so whenever a new execution context is established, this resolves to a distinct value. This can also happen when the current execution context is modified. The following subsections list the five cases where this can happen.

You can put the code samples in the AST explorer to follow along with specification details.

1. Global execution context in scripts

This is script code evaluated at the top level, e.g. directly inside a <script>:

<script>
// Global context
console.log(this); // Logs global object.

setTimeout(function(){
  console.log("Not global context");
});
</script>

When in the initial global execution context of a script, evaluating this causes GetThisBinding to take the following steps:

The GetThisBinding concrete method of a global Environment Record envRec […] [does this]:

1. Return envRec.[[GlobalThisValue]].

The [[GlobalThisValue]] property of a global Environment Record is always set to the host-defined global object, which is reachable via globalThis (window on Web, global on Node.js; Docs on MDN). Follow the steps of InitializeHostDefinedRealm to learn how the [[GlobalThisValue]] property comes to be.

2. Global execution context in modules

Modules have been introduced in ECMAScript 2015.

This applies to modules, e.g. when directly inside a <script type="module">, as opposed to a simple <script>.

When in the initial global execution context of a module, evaluating this causes GetThisBinding to take the following steps:

The GetThisBinding concrete method of a module Environment Record […] [does this]:

1. Return undefined.

In modules, the value of this is always undefined in the global context. Modules are implicitly in strict mode.

3. Entering eval code

There are two kinds of eval calls: direct and indirect. This distinction exists since the ECMAScript 5th edition.

• A direct eval call usually looks like eval(…); or (eval)(…); (or ((eval))(…);, etc.).¹ It’s only direct if the call expression fits a narrow pattern.²
• An indirect eval call involves calling the function reference eval in any other way. It could be eval?.(…), (…, eval)(…), window.eval(…), eval.call(…,…), etc. Given const aliasEval1 = eval; window.aliasEval2 = eval;, it would also be aliasEval1(…), aliasEval2(…). Separately, given const originalEval = eval; window.eval = (x) => originalEval(x);, calling eval(…) would also be indirect.

See chuckj’s answer to “(1, eval)('this') vs eval('this') in JavaScript?” and Dmitry Soshnikov’s ECMA-262-5 in detail – Chapter 2: Strict Mode (archived) for when you might use an indirect eval() call.

PerformEval executes the eval code. It creates a new declarative Environment Record as its LexicalEnvironment, which is where GetThisEnvironment gets the this value from.

Then, if this appears in eval code, the GetThisBinding method of the Environment Record found by GetThisEnvironment is called and its value returned.

And the created declarative Environment Record depends on whether the eval call was direct or indirect:

• In a direct eval, it will be based on the current running execution context’s LexicalEnvironment.
• In an indirect eval, it will be based on the [[GlobalEnv]] property (a global Environment Record) of the Realm Record which executed the indirect eval.

Which means:

• In a direct eval, the this value doesn’t change; it’s taken from the lexical scope that called eval.
• In an indirect eval, the this value is the global object (globalThis).

What about new Function? — new Function is similar to eval, but it doesn’t call the code immediately; it creates a function. A this binding doesn’t apply anywhere here, except when the function is called, which works normally, as explained in the next subsection.

4. Entering function code

Entering function code occurs when calling a function.

There are four categories of syntax to invoke a function.

• The EvaluateCall AO is performed for these three:³
  
  • Normal function calls
  • Optional chaining calls
  • Tagged templates
• And EvaluateNew is performed for this one:³
  
  • Constructor invocations

The actual function call happens at the Call AO, which is called with a thisValue determined from context; this argument is passed along in a long chain of call-related calls. Call calls the [[Call]] internal slot of the function. This calls PrepareForOrdinaryCall where a new function Environment Record is created:

A function Environment Record is a declarative Environment Record that is used to represent the top-level scope of a function and, if the function is not an ArrowFunction, provides a this binding. If a function is not an ArrowFunction function and references super, its function Environment Record also contains the state that is used to perform super method invocations from within the function.

In addition, there is the [[ThisValue]] field in a function Environment Record:

This is the this value used for this invocation of the function.

The NewFunctionEnvironment call also sets the function environment’s [[ThisBindingStatus]] property.

[[Call]] also calls OrdinaryCallBindThis, where the appropriate thisArgument is determined based on:

• the original reference,
• the kind of the function, and
• whether or not the code is in strict mode.

Once determined, a final call to the BindThisValue method of the newly created function Environment Record actually sets the [[ThisValue]] field to the thisArgument.

Finally, this very field is where a function Environment Record’s GetThisBinding AO gets the value for this from:

The GetThisBinding concrete method of a function Environment Record envRec […] [does this]:

[…]

3. Return envRec.[[ThisValue]].

Again, how exactly the this value is determined depends on many factors; this was just a general overview. With this technical background, let’s examine all the concrete examples.

Arrow functions

When an arrow function is evaluated, the [[ThisMode]] internal slot of the function object is set to “lexical” in OrdinaryFunctionCreate.

At OrdinaryCallBindThis, which takes a function F:

1. Let thisMode be F.[[ThisMode]].
2. If thisMode is lexical, return NormalCompletion(undefined).
   […]

which just means that the rest of the algorithm which binds this is skipped. An arrow function does not bind its own this value.

So, what is this inside an arrow function, then? Looking back at ResolveThisBinding and GetThisEnvironment, the HasThisBinding method explicitly returns false.

The HasThisBinding concrete method of a function Environment Record envRec […] [does this]:

1. If envRec.[[ThisBindingStatus]] is lexical, return false; otherwise, return true.

So the outer environment is looked up instead, iteratively. The process will end in one of the three environments that have a this binding.

This just means that, in arrow function bodies, this comes from the lexical scope of the arrow function, or in other words (from Arrow function vs function declaration / expressions: Are they equivalent / exchangeable?):

Arrow functions don’t have their own this […] binding. Instead, [this identifier is] resolved in the lexical scope like any other variable. That means that inside an arrow function, this [refers] to the [value of this] in the environment the arrow function is defined in (i.e. “outside” the arrow function).

Function properties

In normal functions (function, methods), this is determined by how the function is called.

This is where these “syntax variants” come in handy.

Consider this object containing a function:

const refObj = {
    func: function(){
      console.log(this);
    }
  };

Alternatively:

const refObj = {
    func(){
      console.log(this);
    }
  };

In any of the following function calls, the this value inside func will be refObj.¹

• refObj.func()
• refObj["func"]()
• refObj?.func()
• refObj.func?.()
• refObj.func``

If the called function is syntactically a property of a base object, then this base will be the “reference” of the call, which, in usual cases, will be the value of this. This is explained by the evaluation steps linked above; for example, in refObj.func() (or refObj["func"]()), the CallMemberExpression is the entire expression refObj.func(), which consists of the MemberExpression refObj.func and the Arguments ().

But also, refObj.func and refObj play three roles, each:

• they’re both expressions,
• they’re both references, and
• they’re both values.

refObj.func as a value is the callable function object; the corresponding reference is used to determine the this binding.

The optional chaining and tagged template examples work very similarly: basically, the reference is everything before the ?.(), before the ``, or before the ().

EvaluateCall uses IsPropertyReference of that reference to determine if it is a property of an object, syntactically. It’s trying to get the [[Base]] property of the reference (which is e.g. refObj, when applied to refObj.func; or foo.bar when applied to foo.bar.baz). If it is written as a property, then GetThisValue will get this [[Base]] property and use it as the this value.

Note: Getters / Setters work the same way as methods, regarding this. Simple properties don’t affect the execution context, e.g. here, this is in global scope:

const o = {
    a: 1,
    b: this.a, // Is `globalThis.a`.
    [this.a]: 2 // Refers to `globalThis.a`.
  };

Calls without base reference, strict mode, and with

A call without a base reference is usually a function that isn’t called as a property. For example:

func(); // As opposed to `refObj.func();`.

This also happens when passing or assigning methods, or using the comma operator. This is where the difference between Reference Record and Value is relevant.

Note function j: following the specification, you will notice that j can only return the function object (Value) itself, but not a Reference Record. Therefore the base reference refObj is lost.

const g = (f) => f(); // No base ref.
const h = refObj.func;
const j = () => refObj.func;

g(refObj.func);
h(); // No base ref.
j()(); // No base ref.
(0, refObj.func)(); // Another common pattern to remove the base ref.

EvaluateCall calls Call with a thisValue of undefined here. This makes a difference in OrdinaryCallBindThis (F: the function object; thisArgument: the thisValue passed to Call):

1. Let thisMode be F.[[ThisMode]].

[…]

5. If thisMode is strict, let thisValue be thisArgument.
6. Else,
   
   1. If thisArgument is undefined or null, then
      
      1. Let globalEnv be calleeRealm.[[GlobalEnv]].
      2. […]
      3. Let thisValue be globalEnv.[[GlobalThisValue]].
   2. Else,
      
      1. Let thisValue be ! ToObject(thisArgument).
      2. NOTE: ToObject produces wrapper objects […].

[…]

Note: step 5 sets the actual value of this to the supplied thisArgument in strict mode — undefined in this case. In “sloppy mode”, an undefined or null thisArgument results in this being the global this value.

If IsPropertyReference returns false, then EvaluateCall takes these steps:

1. Let refEnv be ref.[[Base]].
2. Assert: refEnv is an Environment Record.
3. Let thisValue be refEnv.WithBaseObject().

This is where an undefined thisValue may come from: refEnv.WithBaseObject() is always undefined, except in with statements. In this case, thisValue will be the binding object.

There’s also Symbol.unscopables (Docs on MDN) to control the with binding behavior.

To summarize, so far:

function f1(){
  console.log(this);
}

function f2(){
  console.log(this);
}

function f3(){
  console.log(this);
}

const o = {
    f1,
    f2,
    [Symbol.unscopables]: {
      f2: true
    }
  };

f1(); // Logs `globalThis`.

with(o){
  f1(); // Logs `o`.
  f2(); // `f2` is unscopable, so this logs `globalThis`.
  f3(); // `f3` is not on `o`, so this logs `globalThis`.
}

and:

"use strict";

function f(){
  console.log(this);
}

f(); // Logs `undefined`.

// `with` statements are not allowed in strict-mode code.

Note that when evaluating this, it doesn’t matter where a normal function is defined.

.call, .apply, .bind, thisArg, and primitives

Another consequence of step 5 of OrdinaryCallBindThis, in conjunction with step 6.2 (6.b in the spec), is that a primitive this value is coerced to an object only in “sloppy” mode.

To examine this, let’s introduce another source for the this value: the three methods that override the this binding:⁴

• Function.prototype.apply(thisArg, argArray)
• Function.prototype. {call, bind} (thisArg, ...args)

.bind creates a bound function, whose this binding is set to thisArg and cannot change again. .call and .apply call the function immediately, with the this binding set to thisArg.

.call and .apply map directly to Call, using the specified thisArg. .bind creates a bound function with BoundFunctionCreate. These have their own [[Call]] method which looks up the function object’s [[BoundThis]] internal slot.

Examples of setting a custom this value:

function f(){
  console.log(this);
}

const myObj = {},
  g = f.bind(myObj),
  h = (m) => m();

// All of these log `myObj`.
g();
f.bind(myObj)();
f.call(myObj);
h(g);

For objects, this is the same in strict and non-strict mode.

Now, try to supply a primitive value:

function f(){
  console.log(this);
}

const myString = "s",
  g = f.bind(myString);

g();              // Logs `String { "s" }`.
f.call(myString); // Logs `String { "s" }`.

In non-strict mode, primitives are coerced to their object-wrapped form. It’s the same kind of object you get when calling Object("s") or new String("s"). In strict mode, you can use primitives:

"use strict";

function f(){
  console.log(this);
}

const myString = "s",
  g = f.bind(myString);

g();              // Logs `"s"`.
f.call(myString); // Logs `"s"`.

Libraries make use of these methods, e.g. jQuery sets the this to the DOM element selected here:

$("button").click(function(){
  console.log(this); // Logs the clicked button.
});

Constructors, classes, and new

When calling a function as a constructor using the new operator, EvaluateNew calls Construct, which calls the [[Construct]] method. If the function is a base constructor (i.e. not a class extends…{…}), it sets thisArgument to a new object created from the constructor’s prototype. Properties set on this in the constructor will end up on the resulting instance object. this is implicitly returned, unless you explicitly return your own non-primitive value.

A class is a new way of creating constructor functions, introduced in ECMAScript 2015.

function Old(a){
  this.p = a;
}

const o = new Old(1);

console.log(o);  // Logs `Old { p: 1 }`.

class New{
  constructor(a){
    this.p = a;
  }
}

const n = new New(1);

console.log(n); // Logs `New { p: 1 }`.

Class definitions are implicitly in strict mode:

class A{
  m1(){
    return this;
  }
  m2(){
    const m1 = this.m1;
    
    console.log(m1());
  }
}

new A().m2(); // Logs `undefined`.

super

The exception to the behavior with new is class extends…{…}, as mentioned above. Derived classes do not immediately set their this value upon invocation; they only do so once the base class is reached through a series of super calls (happens implicitly without an own constructor). Using this before calling super is not allowed.

Calling super calls the super constructor with the this value of the lexical scope (the function Environment Record) of the call. GetThisValue has a special rule for super calls. It uses BindThisValue to set this to that Environment Record.

class DerivedNew extends New{
  constructor(a, a2){
    // Using `this` before `super` results in a ReferenceError.
    super(a);
    this.p2 = a2;
  }
}

const n2 = new DerivedNew(1, 2);

console.log(n2); // Logs `DerivedNew { p: 1, p2: 2 }`.

5. Evaluating class fields

Instance fields and static fields were introduced in ECMAScript 2022.

When a class is evaluated, ClassDefinitionEvaluation is performed, modifying the running execution context. For each ClassElement:

• if a field is static, then this refers to the class itself,
• if a field is not static, then this refers to the instance.

Private fields (e.g. #x) and methods are added to a PrivateEnvironment.

Static blocks are currently a TC39 stage 3 proposal. Static blocks work the same as static fields and methods: this inside them refers to the class itself.

Note that in methods and getters / setters, this works just like in normal function properties.

class Demo{
  a = this;
  b(){
    return this;
  }
  static c = this;
  static d(){
    return this;
  }
  // Getters, setters, private modifiers are also possible.
}

const demo = new Demo;

console.log(demo.a, demo.b()); // Both log `demo`.
console.log(Demo.c, Demo.d()); // Both log `Demo`.

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¹: (o.f)() is equivalent to o.f(); (f)() is equivalent to f(). This is explained in this 2ality article (archived). Particularly see how a ParenthesizedExpression is evaluated.

²: It must be a MemberExpression, must not be a property, must have a [[ReferencedName]] of exactly "eval", and must be the %eval% intrinsic object.

³: Whenever the specification says “Let ref be the result of evaluating X.”, then X is some expression that you need to find the evaluation steps for.

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